How Katherine Mansfield’s Writing Changed Through

Katherine Mansfield was predominantly a short story writer born in New Zealand in 1888. Although she has often been quoted demonstrating a negative view on New Zealand, she â€Å"thanks God she was born in New Zealand†. Her father was a successful business man and her mother was a younger woman. It is widely acknowledged that her parents played a major role on her views of men and woman in society and the gender imbalance.She began writing from a very early age writing for her Wellington high school newsletter. One of her first novels and one which strongly represents her views on the gender imbalance in society was Frau Brechenmacher Attends a Wedding. This story represents the Frau very much as the subservient housewife to her more dominant and intimidating husband. The first instance of this is when Frau threatens her daughter with the wrath of her father, to which the daughter immediately responds to the request.This story was strongly based on what Mansfield had seen in h er time living in Germany in the earlier stages of her career and the story is an undisguised satire of the German character, in particular the German housewife who Mansfield saw as unkind and somewhat shallow due to their displeasure of their role in society. The story of Frau Brechenmacher continues on and the Frau and her husband attend a wedding. Katherine Mansfield describes the bride as having the ‘appearance of an iced cake all ready to be cut and served in neat little pieces to the bridegroom beside her’.This is a very blatant and obvious piece of writing that outlines the woman’s role in a marriage. This shows that the bride is a mere object to the groom and her role in the marriage is to please her husband. Also, the story goes in to detail about the daughter being shown the role of a woman by her mother which is encouraging the cycle of woman’s servitude and therefore Mansfield puts a negative light on the subject, shown by the quote, â€Å"gir ls have a lot to learn† which carries a negative connotation.However, the Frau is aware of her situation and does not particularly enjoy it as â€Å"everybody laughed at his speech, except the Frau† and â€Å"She wanted to go home and never come out again†. Katherine Mansfield was opposed to the idea of the traditional role of woman in society and the gender imbalance that was so obvious to her as favourable to the man. Also, she saw and represented men as predatory. This is shown at the very end of Frau Brechenmacher Attends a Wedding when it is stated that she lay on her bed â€Å"who expected to get hurt as Herr Brechenmacher lurched in†. This is ot the first instance in the story where the Frau and even her daughter are shown to be intimidated by the dominant figure of the relationship in Herr Brechenmacher. This is why Katherine Mansfield intentionally chose to refer to him as ‘the father’ throughout the story as it is like a title. Title s are given to people who are important figures and by giving him this title and Herr Brechenmacher being referred to as the father by his wife and daughter show that they have a certain respect for him but also gives the sense of distance between the husband and his family.The idea of distance between the Frau and her husband is most prolifically represented when he ‘†lurches in† which implies the idea of forced sex on his behalf. This shows that even though they are husband and wife, they are extremely distanced and can potentially not even have consenting sex. This enhances Mansfield’s view of the woman as an object or accessory to the husband as purely for the pleasure of her partner. Frau Brechenmacher is also portrayed to be much more comfortable when she is in the house alone without her husband.Although she is often doing her duties for her husband, she is more relaxed in that environment without the oppressive Herr Brechenmacher. There is a sense of uneasiness when Herr Brechenmacher returns home as she sends her daughter into the bedroom and begins to rush to get everything ready and perfect for her husband. This gives the impression that the house is a sanctuary for all subservient women and that was how Katherine Mansfield viewed it and writes on the matter with such satirical influence.The short story, Frau Brechenmacher Attends a Wedding, is a story that does not carry many subliminal or hidden messages when dealing with the criticism of the women’s role in society. It is unlike some of her later works that hide the ideas that are intended to be portrayed. It is a very matter of fact piece of writing that was strongly scrutinized for the views and opinions that it was showcasing, which is potentially why Katherine Mansfield decided to write her later works that had similar themes with more discretion and subtlety.Another short story by Katherine Mansfield which deals with the same issues that are brought to light i n Frua Brechenmacher Attends a Wedding is ‘The Woman at the Store’ written two years after Frau Brechenmacher in 1912. Similarly with Frau Brechenmacher, ‘The Woman at the Store’ deals with the issues of gender imbalance and the oppressive male figure in relationships in a very unsubtle and obvious way. However, unlike Frua Brechenmacher, Mansfield deals with these issues in a much more violent and twisted manner in ‘The Woman at the Store’ which ends in a melodramatic twist.This is similar to other short stories written in the same era of Mansfield including ‘Ole Underwood’ and ‘Millie’. ‘The Woman at the Store’ is a story of two men and a girl travelling by horseback through a desolate environment in the North Island of New Zealand. They come across a house in which lives a woman and her daughter and one of the travelling men knows her from previous journeys. However, the woman is not what she used to be or how she is previously described to be â€Å"certainly her eyes were blue, and what hair she had was yellow, but ugly†.This comes to a surprise by all the travellers as they had been promised wondrous things by a character named Hin â€Å"Don’t forget theres a woman too, Jo, with blue eyes and yellow hair, who’ll promise you something else before she shakes hands with you†. It is revealed to us as the reader that the woman was once a beautiful woman and a barmaid but that had all changed once she became wed and bore children. This is also another common theme that is seen throughout Mansfield’s writings, particularly the ones that have a strong feminist base and represent men as oppressive and somewhat ruining their female counterparts.The idea of child-birth being the bane of a woman’s existence is shown in some of Mansfield’s works where she writes about the role of woman as objects for giving birth to children for the male in th e relationships sake. This is shown in ‘The Woman at the Store’ when the woman is abusive to her only child, yelling her and speaking down to her. Also, later in the story when all the characters are drinking whiskey around a table, the woman becomes upset and starts to talk about her life when she says â€Å"It’s six years since I was married, and four miscarriages†.This quote has a negative tone to it and gives the impression that the woman is not happy about her situation that her husband has left her in. The woman is also extremely bitter towards her husband for the life that he has given to her which is the way that Mansfield represents her ideas of the female in relationships being unpleased by marriage and the new role they have had to take on as the generic housewife. The bitterness of the woman towards her husband is best shown by the quote â€Å"Over and over I tells ‘im – you’ve broken my spirit and ruined my looks, and wot for†.The idea of men as predatory which is so often used in Mansfield’s works is also briefly alluded to in ‘The Woman at the Store’, however, in this story it is much less obvious. Jo, the oldest of the three travellers is pleased to learn that the woman at the store has been left alone by her husband and uses this as a window of opportunity to potentially sleep with the woman. This is made known to the reader when Jo cleans himself up before returning to the house to spend the evening drinking with the woman and the three travellers.Also, it is noted that â€Å"they were kissing feet under the table†. Jo and the woman end up sleeping together that night and although it may not seem to be predatory on Jo’s behalf, it can be interpreted this way. The reasoning for this is because Jo showed more interest in the woman once learning that her husband goes away and often and how much she dislikes this. Also, Jo often encourages the woman to continu e drinking whiskey which could be interpreted as him coaxing her in.The message that Katherine Mansfield is trying to convey in ‘The Woman at the Store’ is the criticism of women’s dependence on men during the time that the story was being written and it also criticises women for perpetuating the cycle of womanhood that they are subjected to. The fate of the woman’s husband is later revealed by her strange child who is known to draw everything she says instead of vocally delivering her messages. The child is also referred to by one of the travellers as having a â€Å"diseased mind†. This along with the repetition of the references to her drawings subconsciously prepares the reader for what is to come.The daughter, in spite of her mother, draws a picture of woman shooting a man and digging a hole to bury him in. Katherine Mansfield chose this ending to the story because it carries a shock-factor. Throughout the story, negative references had been mad e about the father of the child by the woman and how she despised him for what he had done to her. By ending the story like this, Mansfield has demonstrated that murder is the only answer to oppression and subjection imposed by the male role in society. However, this is only a satirical view by Mansfield.She uses such little sophistication in this story and ends it with such a melodramatic ending so that the idea woman do not have to put up with such degrading behaviour from their husbands becomes so clear and obvious. Another reference to the lack of sophistication in ‘The Woman at the Store’, one of Mansfield’s earlier short stories, is the juxtaposition of the weather and the tone or mood of the story. For example, when the weather is sunny, the mood of the story is light-hearted and as the weather turns more unpleasant, the mood of the story becomes more sinister.Between her short stories from the collection ‘A German Pension’ which included Frau Brechenmacher and ‘The Woman at the Store’ and her short story ‘The Garden Party’, many things had changed in the life of Katherine Mansfield. She had continued to write solidly through this time period but she had since moved from Germany and moved to London where she would meet her future husband, John Middleton Murray. They had spent some time in Paris and she also spent a few months in Paris, behind enemy lines, once war had broken out.Her brother had died in the war which was a huge blow to Katherine, and during this time her health had also declined and she was diagnosed with tuberculosis. All these events in Mansfield’s life had altered the way in which she wrote, with her stories having more focus on characters and inter-character relations. It brought about a whole new sophistication to Mansfield’s works; however her views on men had still not changed, even after having a somewhat contented marriage and other relations with men.This is shown in a letter to John Middleton Murray in 1919 – â€Å"Someone came to me and said Forget, forget that you’ve been wed. Who’s your man to leave you be Ill and cold in a far country? Who’s the husband – who’s the stone Could leave a child like you alone† This letter or poem if you will, shows that Mansfield has turned in to the women who is dependent on her male counterpart which she had prolifically wrote against in her earlier stories. However, she later acknowledged this and wrote about it in resentment.Also, during the time between her ‘German Pension’ collection and her later stories, including ‘The Garden Party’ she had developed her characters, often reflecting her own life and life experiences in them. This is what is seen to be her sophistication in her later works. Mansfield’s later works such as the ‘Garden Party’ have been known to focus less on the plotline of the story and more on specific events in the story, and more importantly, the relationships between her characters. It is through these relationships that her motives for writing he stories come through. For example, the way Laura in ‘The Garden Party’ tries to imitate her mother’s actions ‘â€Å"Good morning,† she said copying her mother’s voice. ’ This is a perfect example of Mansfield’s view on woman allowing the cycle of domestication to continue and when looked at in greater depth shows how the older woman influence their daughters to do so. Again, this is just one of Katherine Mansfield’s views on the role of woman in society that is shown throughout her short stories, but this time it is alluded to in a more subtle way. The Garden Party’ was written in 1922, more than 10 years after ‘The Woman at the Store’ and ‘Frau Brechenmacher’ but her views had not changed in this time. However, some of t he ways in which she presents her views in ‘The Garden Party’ are much more sophisticated than previous stories. For example, workmen are preparing to set up a marquee for the garden party and suggest that it should go in front of some karaka trees. Laura contemplates whether this should be done and comments on the beauty of the trees and how solitary they were.But in the end she decides that ‘they must’ be covered by the marquee. This could be seen as a metaphor for the beauty of woman being covered and hidden by men, being the marquee. And the fact that Laura uses the words ‘they must’ shows how she has been brought up to think that woman should be squandered by men. Laura from ‘The Garden Party’ is also often left admiring the workmen in the story and commenting on how wonderful they were. At first glance, any reader may take it at face value.But with prior knowledge of Mansfield’s other stories and her views, you would b e able to pick up on the underlying satire that is rampant throughout the story. Satire is one of the ways in which Mansfield expresses her views and opinions on different matters, quite often concerning gender imbalance. The idea of the woman being the domestic person around the house and the father being the oppressive figure just like in ‘Frau Brechenmacher Attends a Wedding’ is also evident in ‘The Garden Party. In the lead up to the party, Mrs Sheridan orders her children to do all different tasks while she does her own, and the children respond immediately as they look up to their mother. But however in one instance where she is in a rush she threatens them, â€Å"Do you hear me, children, or shall I have to tell your father when he comes home to-night? † â€Å"The Garden Party’ is very closely related to Katherine Mansfield herself, with the story being set in a grand house in New Zealand. When she was younger she lived in lavish houses with her parents and siblings just like in the story.Also, the main character Laura, can possibly be seen as Mansfield herself or having aspects and qualities like her. This is why this story is often regarded as her best short story as it incorporates many themes and because she is writing somewhat from her own life experiences, she is able to portray these themes and ideas extremely well. For example, Laura is the one character who shows respect for their neighbours who had just had a death in the family and she is shown as a character with a set of morals, just like Mansfield herself.The ways in which Mansfield relates herself directly to her situations and characters in her later works such as The Garden Party’ are what are seen as to be her sophistication and maturing in her writing style. She moved away from very obvious and simplistic ways of getting her ideas across to her audience, to a more subtle and underlying way of getting the ideas through to her readers. And becaus e of her maturing in her writing and her skill in her craft, she has become to be known as New Zealand’s, and one of the worlds, best short story writers of her time.

Lyle Week paper

This business model keeps costs low in shipping and inventory, but can see increased manufacturing sots because of the supply chain requirements involved in the custom fabrication of individualized orders. The case study begins with the investigation of the increased manufacturing costs that reached an alarming level in 2005. Case Study Question Responses The case study questions involve process analysis, decision-making, supply chain optimization, and root cause analysis. Because Dell Inc. Assembled a group of appointed experts with a division director leading the business process improvement, the data required to answer the questions is readily available in easy to use figures, tables, and charts. The increased manufacturing costs relate directly to the supply chain, and solutions to the supply chain and manufacturing problems for the company will result from the task team analysis. Examining the effects of the recommended changes resulting from the root cause analysis on the suppl y chain also provide valuable insights that may be applied to nearly any manufacturing process.Manufacturing Costs Identification Why does AL incur higher manufacturing and logistics costs than AL? Identify costs incurred by 15 and not by AL. Identify any costs incurred to only AL and not AL. Manufacturing a consumer ready PC from an L'S configuration versus an AL configuration requires the extra steps of installing the motherboard, and often the power supply. This increase costs because of the additional assembly costs, and supply chain issues related to the additional components.These supply chain issues include the quality Of components, forecast inaccuracies, the volatile demand of new product introductions, and the largest issue of suppliers not meeting delivery obligations. The steps involved in elevating an AL assembly to an AL incur the additional costs of all f these potential supply chain issues, and the costs of the additional components and assembly. The 1. 5 costs are r elatively stable because without the motherboard installed in the chassis, the chassis is in a state that could satisfy a wide variety of customer orders.Because of the associated costs of installing a customer-specified motherboard into a mature chassis, the transition to an AL chassis may spike manufacturing costs. Manufacturing Solutions Which of the six proposed manufacturing solutions should Dell implement based on survey results (Fig. 6-1 Why? What are the pros and cons of this commendation? Based upon the cost per box information and the survey results, option AAA -integration at supplier logistics center using Dell factory associates appears to be the best solution.The reasons behind this decision come from the information that option AAA has the lowest complexity score from the experts within the company, capital expenditure is low, cost per box is below the average of the options, and there is no impact to the current process. The pros of this option are that a minor chang e in the supply chain should provide a ready to customize chassis without sign incant cost per box increases. The cons are a minor capital expenditure, and hiring personnel to build the new chassis at the supplier logistics center.Chippies Supply Shortage What would you do if the chippies supply shortage further deteriorated? The supply of chippies is critical to competing a product, and the shortages account for more than 60% of the supply chain problems of elevating an AL chassis to an 1_6. The only real way to combat a known problem of this magnitude is to increase the safety stock of chippies. The small size should not create much of a storage problem, and the ability to keep the supply Hahn moving should cover the additional inventory costs.Methodology Analysis How good is the methodology employed by the Business Process Improvement (BPI) team to determine the optimum manufacturing option for Dell? Are there more effective approaches? A survey of experts within the survey area should yield a variety of ideas and feedback from a numerous viewpoints. The survey was an excellent choice, and I cannot think of a more effective approach. Supply Chain Changes What changes need to be made in the supply chain for Dell to effectively address the root causes contributing to the increase of AL manufacturing?What would be the effect of these changes? The changes should start with creating a reasonable safety stock of chippies to keep the supply chain operating. The next issue is checking or testing the quality of the motherboards before the installation Step so that developing a new forecast could yield a close to accurate supply. The final issue is proper demand forecasting for daily operations as well as new product introductions. The long lead times for components and volatile demand levels, ad to the increased manufacturing costs, and may decrease customer value in the longLearning Application run. What have you learned from this case study that you would be able to apply in an organization where you have previously worked or currently work? The department where I work produces a product that has a similar complexity that depends on multiple areas contributing elements of the final product that must be assembled in the correct order, and function as a complete unit – just like the Dell desktop PC. This case study illustrated the problems that we experience, and used a smart survey to gather feedback for informed decision-making.

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Employment Law - Essay Example faced by UK companies who are down sizing and may find it difficult to lay off employees, especially those that are disabled or belong to a minority race. This Report will also briefly examine the rights of employees under the new TUPE regulations. [1]. The changing business scenario within the U.K. poses several challenges, especially for those businesses that function within the hospitality sector. The airline industry in particular has been adversely affected by the threats posed by terrorist activity, as a result many of the larger carriers are resorting to the launch of budget airlines to offset costs, for example GO Airlines which is an offshoot of British Airways, Other budget, â€Å"no frills† airlines functioning within the UK are Ryan Air and Easy Jet airlines, which have been able to attract their fair share of travelers by offering cut throat low fares. The larger airlines however, have faced large scale losses as a result of which employee lay offs and/or mergers with other companies are more common now than before. Moreover, several airline companies are also sub contracting their services, for example catering, ticketing etc in order to reduce expenses and the position of independent contractors under UK law al so becomes relevant. Other issues that also arise in the context of the airline industry are issues of outsourcing some services or entering into mergers with other companies for some services and this could evoke the provisions of the TUPE Regulations within the UK that spell out the manner in which employee transfers are to take place through mergers.

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What did I do after i finished my high school Essay

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Choose any organisation of your choice and as external observer of the Essay

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Discuss the relationship between globalisation and democracy (with Essay

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Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Teaching of Maths in Primary Schools - Essay Example Mike Askew et al in their study on effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy isolated three belief systems that were characteristic of the approaches teachers took in teaching numeracy. They were the connectionist, transmission and discovery models. An in-depth look at their respective characteristics, relative merits and overall efficacy is given below. The Connectionist Model: In the words of Askew et al (1997, p.341) it includes "beliefs based around both valuing pupils' methods and teaching effective strategies with an emphasis on establishing connections within mathematics." The stress here is on efficiency as well as effectiveness. The keyword is "connection" as connectionist oriented teachers seek to teach students to establish links between the numbers, methods and concepts in mathematics in order to facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject. Students are expected to be aware of the available methods and to demonstrate skill in selecting the appropriate method. "The connectionist orientation places a strong emphasis on developing reasoning, justification and, eventually, proof within the teaching of number."(Askew et al, 1997, p.343) These teachers believe that students come equipped with mental strategies and it is possible for anyone to achieve proficiency in mathematics with the help of effective teaching. Misunder standings are seen as a way to clarify matters and enhance understanding. An important tool for the connectionist oriented teacher is the use of dialogue as the basis of imparting knowledge. The Transmission Model: According to Askew et al (1997, p.341) it is the "beliefs based around the primacy of teaching and a view of mathematics as a collection of separate routines and procedures." Teachers of this orientation set much store by routine and paper and pencil methods. They teach mathematical concepts in isolation. A student's prior knowledge of the subject is largely seen as irrelevant. The emphasis here is on teaching rather than on learning. If the student fails to learn despite a clear verbal explanation, it is seen as a result of the child's inability to learn. The teacher uses the question and answer format to discern students' progress. The Discovery Model: Askew et al (1997, p.341 state that it includes "beliefs based around the primacy of learning and a view of mathematics as being discovered by pupils." Here the stress is on the process of discovery as the student explores and understands the world of mathematics. The method used is considered irrelevant, provided the correct answer is arrived at. It aims to focus on and improve practical skills. As per this orientation learning is of importance and students are encouraged to learn at their pace and use the strategies they see as appropriate. Numeracy is seen as a natural process and it cannot be hastened. Having noted the salient features of these belief systems, it must be remembered that they are 'ideal types' and it is unlikely that any teacher will be a purist with regard to these orientations. With regard to efficiency in teaching mathematics there is little room for doubt. Askew et al (1997, p.345) have concluded from their studies "that those teachers with a strong

Mill's Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mill's Ethics - Essay Example She knew, however, just then that it was all wrong for Nick is a married man with two children and Mary is his wife of five years at that point in time. Now, since Chloe is a common link who happens to have witnessed scenarios on both sides and believes to have firsthand knowledge of the moral conflict, she eventually finds herself in a dilemma of choosing which between the two parties ought to be dealt with first. By the established norm, of course, she must opt to stop Jane from proceeding to fall into an adulterous relationship with Nick for the sake of Mary’s family, being the man’s original legal attachment. Nevertheless, in doing so, she would have caused Jane severe pain out of an emotional struggle which she is known to be weak in coping especially when she seems to have put forth in reasoning that her current state of affair was obtained with huge sacrifices that her happiness, as the chief consequence thereof, may not or should not be taken away from her at al l cost. Apparently, Chloe figures the validity of Jane’s argument upon pondering on some relevant aspects of John Stuart Mill’s ethics on utilitarianism, yet reserves an equivalent degree of doubt and philosophical analysis in favor of Mary. By the simple defining principle of utilitarianism in which the consequence is set to determine the moral value of an action or deed, Stuart Mill emerges to draw on a favored unique perspective where such theory ought to be acknowledged in the light of understanding that â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Mill, Ch. 2).† Equivalently, this is to mean that as long as an act or behavior causes one or many to be happy, then it is to be judged as morally right. One way of gaining discernment of this proposition is by asking ‘is happiness then a measure of justice?’ To what extent should happiness shape the view of morality a s good and scrupulous if there are people like Jane whose case is quite special? What if one’s doings of something make the individual happy yet the ones beyond his or her circle are rather annoyed or hurt as in the probable effect which Jane and Nick’s immoral quest would bear upon Mary? Surely Jane deserves to be happy and possesses the right to act accordingly but how can actions by which happiness is experienced be evaluated as truly ethically conforming if someone else out there as Mary is otherwise bound to be unhappy? Or must a specific area be defined within which only a certain set of actions with all the corresponding outcomes can be permitted to undergo moral justifications? At this stage, Chloe could be found to comprehend Jane on account of Mill’s claim that what promotes happiness at least for Jane’s part should be right but it would similarly suspend her judgment for Mary’s welfare since Jane’s consent of the illegal matter ad vances not in any way the happiness or interest of Mary. While their situation may be felt to require a greater level of moral concern, Mill’s philosophy appears to consist of a pattern or direction where the kind of ‘happiness’ being referred to equates to ‘pleasure’, and this pleasure comes in different forms, quality, and quantity. In this regard, the political economist seems to have chiefly adhered to ‘pleasure’

September 11th victims’ compensation Essay Example for Free

September 11th victims’ compensation Essay Why are family members of September 11th victims compensated more than a surviving family member of an American soldier killed in action? Thesis Statement: The effect of September 11 terrorist attacks are immeasurable and the families of the victims should be highly compensated for it’s the only tangible way for the society to show their compassion for the lives being sacrificed. Herman, S. a. W. , Michelle (2004). Repairing the Harm: A New Vision for Crime Victim Compensation in America. National Center for Victims of Crime, 73. The main intention of the authors why they wrote the article is mainly to present a complete picture of the various effects of the attack to the nation. They discuss how the bombing greatly affect the nation, emotionally, physically, and mentally. Many have been traumatized. The death of almost 3,000 people in the attack was a great loss to New York City and to the nation. According to the author, it’s really difficult to put dollar values on lives lost. Though compensation can not address all that the victims suffer, at least it can be a critical component in mending their broken hearts. As the title of the article goes, â€Å"Repairing the Harm†, it is a call for us to take part and show their compassion. Some issues about financial assistance are also being tackled. Different costs of crimes and its impacts are being mentioned too. The author also presented different researches and studies related to the topic. Above all, the article provides arguments on why financial compensation is important to those victims of crimes. I will use the arguments of the authors to defend my position on why the families of September 11th victims need high financial considerations.

Perspectives of Dyslexia

Perspectives of Dyslexia Historically, dyslexia has been explained by three contending perspectives: visual deficit, phonological deficit and cerebellar deficit. Discuss, with reference to Frith (1999), whether these deficit perspectives can be reconciled. This decisive essay will discuss the three contending perspectives of dyslexia and whether these deficit perspectives can be submissive according to Frith (1999). A definition of dyslexia would be outlined as well as a brief background on the three contending perspectives. Furthermore, Frith (1999) article would be discussed including a detailed explanation of Friths three levels of framework and the environmental, cognitive and biological aspects of it and also emphasizing the advantages and disadvantages of frith framework. In addition academic literature and journals will be implemented to sustain the understanding of dyslexia and the contending perspectives, thus making it effective visually. The term dyslexia involves difficulties in learning to read and write. But this is not the only form of difficulty that dyslexic people experience. Dyslexic people usually have difficulties with verbal and visual information. One common example can be learning the sounds of the letters of the alphabet, but this also can affect dyslexic people to learn and remember the names of many objects as well. Usually, dyslexic people have difficulty in learning phonological information in short term memory, any processing of verbal information will be difficult. Mental arithmetic is also another form of difficulty of dyslexia, mathematic can experience difficulties because of the coding that is required often in learning the symbols and functions of mathematics. Also directional confusion is also common in dyslexia; they find it hard to remember and recall left and right. The term ‘Dyslexia means much more in society today than two decades ago. Dyslexia was used to describe different outline of acquired dyslexia and been investigated for almost 100 years. There is a historic difference between the term Dyslexia and the ideas that follow it: ‘learning needs and ‘integration or the term ‘word blindness which was used first by Kussmaul (1877) to differentiate the particular type of speech difficulty which is caused by the left side of the brain controlling speech. Frith (1999) states The definition and explanation of dyslexia have long been problematic (p, 192). As a significant term, Dyslexia transpired rather recently in the history of special education. The history of Dyslexia still traces experiences of the ongoing progression into the present decade, on providing an idea of separate ‘special education for dyslexia pupil in development. The definition of dyslexia has changing according to the increase of knowledge and understanding over the years of debates on dyslexia. There have been many approaches in defining dyslexia, such as exclusion, discrepancy and identification of positive indicators. Frith (1999) stresses the definition of dyslexia Dyslexia can be defined as a neuro-developmental disorder with a biological origin and behavioural signs which extend far beyond problems with written language. At the cognitive level, putative causes of the behavioural signs and symptoms of the condition can be specified (p, 192). In the late 1970s, Uta frith changed from primarily visual theory to a phonological theory. Frith has investigated the cognitive phenotype, which is a difficulty in accessing internally characterize structure of words. In the cross-cultural European project, frith demonstrate that the brain basis of dyslexia in French, Italian and English is the same, although the expression of dyslexia in reading and spelling shows difference in the three countries. Uta Frith (1999) has presented an encouraging framework for thinking about the nature of developmental difficulties. Frith implied that there are three main contending perspectives on any particular developmental condition: a behavioural, cognitive and biological one. And also there are environmental factors that can have a part in the image of these contending perspectives. Friths biological and cognitive perspectives propose theoretical description that involves investigational substantiation, where else the behavioural perspectives lean to be less discussed and questioned because the behaviours can be directly experimental and analysed. The cognitive perspectives seem to describe the processes, which sort of explain how the biological and behavioural explanations plan on to each other. For example, if an area of the brain is damaged (biological perspective), the damaged area would be incapable to store new long-term memories (behavioural perspective) because the brain is unable to function the damaged area, and so it is not capable of transmitting new information from short-term to long-term areas (cognitive perspective). Friths framework highlights the theoretical explanations of dyslexia. Friths framework echoes the levels to which perspectives in psychology can be seen as rather opposite, differing and parallel. It is suggested that when discussing explanations of ‘abnormal development, it is immoral to think that biological and cognitive perspectives are challenging with each other or competing. In fact, it can be seen differently as cognitive and biological models can be complementary rather than contradictory. It is noticed that many description of dyslexia aim to a difficulty with several aspects of memory. This is because people with dyslexia have difficulty with tasks such as mental arithmetic, writing and reading and learning new information, this requires short-term memory processing in the brain. Yet still, these tasks have an additional quality in common, they hold a phonological component. This involves the processing of speech sounds in short term memory. So it is likely to suggest that the deficit in phonological processing may give an account of dyslexia. To be able to understand the impact of why phonological deficit have an effect on writing and reading, it is important to understanding how people with dyslexia naturally learn to read. It is still know clearly understood whether the phonological deficit is connected to the encoding or retrieval of phonological demonstration in memory. While there may be evidence that phonological processes difficulties in processing information in short-term memory, there is also an assumption that the way the information is corresponded to and stored in long-term memory could also further explicate the poor presentation of people with dyslexia on phonological activities. The phonological deficit it seen as a hypothesis, while it has a superior deal of experimental sustains, it is a theoretical hypothetical suggestion, and something that we dont know definitely exists. During the 1970s and 1980s visual deficit explanations were left behind; psychologists gradually adopted a phonological deficit model of dyslexia, debating that reading difficulties reflect on the key problems with language processing. Although the phonological deficit explanation is still widely researched and very popular, there has been a reappearance of attention in the idea that there may be a primary visual deficit that could explain difficulties in learning visual-phonological association. It would be misleading to assume either that visual-perceptual and phonological problems must be equally limited, or to believe that all people with specific reading difficulties are similar. The difference in the ‘clinical image of dyslexia (at either the behavioural or the cognitive level of Friths model) does not in fact rule out some common underlying ‘cause at the biological level. The difficult connection between biology and environment means that the same biological ‘problem can result in different cognitive and behavioural consequences for different people. It is suggest that people with reading difficulties fall into one of three subtypes, depending on the underlying cause of their problem: phonology group, (slow naming) rate group, double deficit group. Because the most common outline of action recommended for children with reading difficulties focuses on improving phonological awareness, support for different type of cognitive deficit in dyslexia is significant. If visual processing deficits do engage in recreating an imperative task, or if there are rate and double deficit subtypes, then training in phonological understanding alone would be i mprobable to address all reading difficulties. It is seen that the cognitive reason ‘explain various behavioural signs of dyslexia. Nevertheless, yet when engaged together, dyslexia cannot be explained completely, nor its inconsistency among individuals. As Frith implies, cognitive account taken in separation are incomplete; biological explanations should also be considered. There has also been awareness on turning to the potential task of the cerebellum in dyslexia. Cerebellum is very important for motor coordination and planning but also is now recognised to engage in a vital part in cognitive development, mainly in the ‘rote learning, for example being able to learning the alphabet and multiplication tables ‘of by heart. Referring to frith model, emphasise on the fact that variability at the behavioural or the cognitive level (e.g. phonological or visual problems) needs not to be taken out single primary source at the biological level. It is perfectly likely that microscopic differentiation in brain architecture could have dissimilar effects according to the exact brain areas affected. ‘Environment is frequently used to refer to only social or non-biological influences. Yet still, it actually also refers to the biological, cognitive and behavioural environments that people might be exposed to. Referring back to Friths framework, it can be recalled that the environment can be greatly involved in each deficit perspectives. An example of biological environmental influences is a dietary deficiency, such as inadequate use of fatty acids. It can be said that home environment can influence reading development, yet also school environments also can influence reading development of children with dyslexia. Like for example children are always in the process of being exposed to different methods of reading instructions and it is discussed and questioned that some instructional methods can in fact avoid reading difficulties.

Singlish And Its Discourse Particles English Language Essay

Singlish And Its Discourse Particles English Language Essay Singapore Colloquial English or more fondly known as Singlish contains a number of pragmatic particles that have come under much scrutiny and discussion over the years. These particles have received much attention, and become a distinctive representation of Singlish. Many studies have been done over the years on the use and functions of these particles (Platt 1987; Platt and Ho 1989; Wong, 2004; Gupta, 2006; Lim 2007, 2011). Much work and research have been done on the classification, history, origins and reasons for the emergence of these particles in the use of Singlish (Lim 2007, Gupta 1992). Gupta (1992) proposed a scale of assertiveness of which eleven SCE particles could be placed on in terms of different degrees of assertiveness. Wee (2002) however, took a different stance, and sought to highlight and substantiate the development and possible evolution of Singlish particles in his analysis of the particle lor using the grammaticalisation framework developed by Traugott (1982, 1988, 1989). Platt (1987: 392) gave a more simplified explanation on the function of these pragmatic particles, and claimed that in a sentence, these pragmatic particles convey additional meaning over and above that expressed by the rest of the utterance. This meant t hat a particle holds by itself independent meaning, and when different particles are attached to an utterance, it would produce different meanings. Lee (2007: 2) illustrated this point by using the following example (1): (1) a. I want to drink mah. b. I want to drink lah. c. I want to drink leh. d. I want to drink lor. e. I want to drink hor. f. I want to drink a. In this example, the head clause of I want to drink does not change. According to Lee (2007: 2), the clause-final particles are syntactically and semantically optional, as their omission affects neither the grammaticality nor the basic meaning of the matrix clause. Therefore in SCE, each clause would possess a different meaning and communicative function by virtue of the clause-final particle attached to it. For example in 1(a), mah performs what Gupta (1992: 43) calls a contradictory function. By adding mah, the clause would suggest that it is a contradictory response to a prior utterance, by presenting what is being said as an absolute and obvious fact. In contrast, while lor in 1(d) can perform a similar function to mah of presenting what is being said as an obvious fact, it generates and encompasses other different meanings. According to Guptas (1992: 43) definition again, the central function of the more mildly assertive lo is to mark a directive or to create a suggestion. In my opinion, the point that Gupta makes about a particle having a central function is not necessarily accurate, as a particles usage is based on users preferences and choices, and not based entirely on the effectiveness of a particle in an utterance as suggested by Gupta in her allocating of a primary serving function to the particles. Going back to the main point, 1(d) can now mean that the speaker is suggesti ng an activity (to drink), probably in response to a question such as What do you want to do there?. Thus, it is clearly evident that these particles can change the entire meaning of an utterance. 1.2 Tone in SCE Pragmatic Particles However, the interesting thing about these pragmatic particles is that they, individually, possess many tonal variants. Guptas suggestion that the particles have a central function also reflects the evidence that these particles have multiple meanings and functions. Taking the much studied particle lah for example, Loke and Low (1988) identified a total of nine tonal variants of lah, classifying them into three major groups termed high, mid or low. However there is a general lack of agreement in terms of recognising the tonal quality of particles. There have been studies that suggest the alternative view is true (Detarding, 1994), and that a particle, especially when sentence final, functions as the carrier of the intonation contour of the utterance (Gupta, 1992). This disagreement meant the number of different particles lah remain a mystery (Wong, 2004: 760). However, what is clear from this is that it is very possible for a particle to have at least two different meanings and funct ions which some have argued, is differentiated by tone. Focus has tended to be placed more on Singlish particles as a group, rather than dissecting their various meanings and grammaticality individually. While there is now growing attention and research done in analysing individual Singlish particles (Wee, 2002, 2003; Wong, 2005; Lee, 2007), data and analysis are still lacking in terms of quantity. In this paper I will focus on the particle leh, which is sometimes also written as lei. However, while I am of the view that pragmatic particles in SCE do possess tonal variants, I would like to challenge the notion that the different meanings and functions leh can be categorised into just tonal variants (Lee, 2007), and I argue that there are actually two different particles in leh, which possess tonal variants of their own. This is a significant distinction because these two particles of leh, can be produced with the same tone, yet their meanings differ. I also seek to add on and complement previous research in this area of study. 2. Neglected variant of leh 2.1 Unpopular leh? Leh is seemingly a less frequently used particle, and Wong (2004) suggests that less popular particles such as leh as compared to particles such as lah could be less popular due to it lacking certain components that allow users to express their cultural norms of interaction in everyday speech (2004: 764). In fact, an analysis of the ICE-SIN corpus (containing about 600,000 words) showed leh to be the third least commonly used particle out of 10 particles selected (Ler, 2005). The particles seemingly low occurrence in Singlish utterances and conversations could also be one of the reasons for a lack of attention and research in this area. 2.2 /lɆº/ and /le/ It is notable, and also the central point of focus in this paper, that leh exists in more than one form. By form, it is meant that leh possesses a different version of itself which differs in not just tone, but pronunciation, and also in meaning. When the particle leh is mentioned, the typical representation of it is that of /le/. In this paper, I seek to bring added attention to its heteronym, /lɆº/. It must also be added that within the two separate versions of leh, different meanings and forms of usage can be derived as well, depending on context. Studies in the past have typically mentioned or focused simply on the /le/ version of leh, failing to distinguish the difference between the two versions (Gupta 1992, 1994; Lim, 2004, 2007). Even when the difference in function and meaning is noticed and investigated, a distinction between them fails to be made (Lee, 2007), thus hampering further analysis of /lɆº/ as a separate particle. I contest that previous assumptions are incorrect, and will seek to show the marked distinction in the usage of /le/ and /lɆº/ in this paper. I believe one of the main contributing factors for the lack of distinction of these two different particles, is due to them having an entirely similar Romanised form of leh. I have mentioned earlier that these two particles function as heteronyms. Due to the fact that they have identical Romanised forms, and tone is often not encapsulated in a Romanised script, it breeds a sense of the two particles being the same. While they do share certain traits in terms of meaning, I would like to prove in this study that the range of their meanings would point to them being separate, independent particles. It is also worth noting that the fact that little attention has been paid to the /lɆº/ form of leh could possibly be attributed to it being a somewhat recent development. As mentioned by Lim (2011: 13), Singlish is capable of displaying a continuum of possibilities in prosodic phonology, of more mesolectal and more basilectal features, and Singlish may in fact be viewed as changing, in the more Sinitic-dominant ecology of the recent era, to display more Sinitic features. It is thus worth hypothesising that change had possibly occurred to the particle itself, in the process changing its pronunciation and range of attitudes conveyed. This however, will not be the main focus of the paper. 3. Previous Studies 3.1 Gupta (1992), and Lees (2007) arguments against Gupta (1992) Gupta (1992) analysed a total of 11 different particles in Singlish, and categorised them on a scale of assertiveness. Guptas claim is that these particles can be marked as belonging to three main categories of contradictory, assertive and tentative. According to her, contradictory particles are used in cases where there is an explicit contradiction to something that had been previously said. In her terms, these particles are maximally assertive. Next down the scale is the assertive group, this group consists of particles which express speakers positive commitment (Gupta, 1992: 37) to a particular utterance. Finally, there is the minimally assertive tentative group. Particles in this group present a less positive commitment as compared to the assertive group. Guptas attempt to categorise these particles on a scale of assertiveness have met with some contention and disagreement (Wee, 2002; Wong, 2004). In particular her choice of labelling Singlish particles as being assertive in nature has been challenged, and Wong (2004) suggests that this classification displays an ethnocentric view in that Gupta is taking an Anglo cultural perspective (Wong, 2004: 752). Moreover, I will not be dealing with the contention surrounding Guptas scale of assertiveness in this paper. Gupta (1992) also included a non-pragmatic classification of leh (appears as lei in Guptas paper), which she lists as being used in x-interrogatives which do not have a wh-word, and recaptures a contextually understood antecedent x (Gupta, 1992: 36). This version of leh in question is classified as a high-level tone leh (Platt 1987; Platt and Ho, 1989), and Gupta claims in this way, leh can be translated as What about? when used as a question particle. This is a view first mentioned by Platt (1987), but is not an accurate analysis of the particle. As mentioned by Lee (2007), this translation cannot adequately capture the meaning of every occurrence of leh. As with many other pragmatic particles in SCE, contextual factors play a huge role in the interpretation of the meaning of the particle. While leh can carry the meaning of What about?, it is by no means restricted to such a definition. Lee (2007) takes issue with this particular definition of the question particle leh, and tried to explain how What about? cannot be used in certain contexts with question particle leh. I list out two examples he used to illustrate his point: Lee (2007) (2) A: Everyones here. Lets go. B: Wait. Siew Lian leh? (3) A: Alan will wipe the tables, and John will sweep the floor. B: Then Siew Lian leh? Lee (2007) claims that in (2), the utterance with leh should be Wait. Where is Siew Lian?, and in (3) it would then take the suggested translation of What about?. He goes on to say that this is proof of how high-level tone leh does not necessarily carry the meaning of What about?. What he is trying to explain is that how an utterance is shaped with the use of leh will be shaped by the context of which it is used in. I agree with this view, however, I disagree with how he illustrates his point. This is because in trying to argue for the flexibility of high-level tone leh, he has neglected to acknowledge a similar flexibility in terms of meaning for What about? as well. For example in (2), Wait. What about Siew Lian? can still be construed and understood as a question asking for the whereabouts of Siew Lian. It does not necessarily have to be framed as an explicit question demanding for the whereabouts or location of Siew Lian in Where is Siew Lian. The converse is true for (3), and we can flip Lees (2007) claim against himself by showing that what about Siew Lian could also be translated explicitly as Then what would Siew Lians duties be?. Thus, similar to high-level tone leh as a question particle, What about? is also dependent on context. This can be further illustrated in the following: (4) A: We will all be going to the party at 10. B: What about Tim? Bs utterance can be understood as asking whether Tim would be going to the party as well. However, supposing Tim has fallen very sick and needs someone to be by his bedside. Both A and B know it would be near impossible for Tim to go to the party, and the most immediate concern would be having someone look after Tim. In this case, Bs utterance would be taken to be asking Then whos going to take care of Tim?. Thus, we can see that What about? functions similarly with high-level tone leh in that they depend upon contextual factors for a correct interpretation. As such, Lees (2007) usage of a narrow definition of What about? as an argument is not conclusive evidence for the incorrectness of this definition for high-level tone leh. However, this is where the similarities between them end. Using the following example: (5) A: If Sam comes tonight, we can finish. B: Then he dont come leh? In (5), What about? cannot be used anymore. In such a scenario, What if would be more appropriate, as in What if he doesnt come?. What if and what about have markedly different meanings, and while we will not delve deep into their range of meanings and functions, it can be agreed that they do not carry the same meaning. As we can see then, high-level tone leh can be used more than as What about?. As such, it is incorrect as suggested by Platt (1987) and Platt and Ho (1989) to translate high-level tone leh as simply What about?. While leh in this form can possess such a meaning, it does not necessarily always translate to such a definition. Gupta (1992) also included the maximally assertive leh, and claims that both declaratives and imperatives with leh frequently, but not always, function as directives (1992: 42). She also manages to recognise and identify the /lɆº/ form of leh when she used the following data: (6) [YG finds passing-out parade picture] YG: Soldier is like that one leh? [high rise] AG: Yes She stated that in (6), it meant the statement with leh was made with an expression of surprise. In her words in such a case, the speaker makes an observation, of which there is no doubt, but which is unexpected (Gupta, 1992: 42). This is different from leh the question particle, and leh the assertive particle which she identifies in her paper. Despite identifying this, she fails to distinguish the difference between /lɆº/ and /le/, and treats it as a deviation of the meaning of leh as a result of context, rather than see it as a separate particle. Lee (2007: 6) brings up another point of contention when he suggests this example is a case of misguided induction, caused by the inadvertent use of an isolated example. He goes on to say this is most likely a performance error, whereby the particle is being misused, and claims this is typically unacceptable to a native SCE speaker. First of all, it is not clear as to which pronunciation of leh Gupta is referring to in her excerpt. If the version of leh used is /le/, then indeed the particle does seem out of place in the utterance. In this case, I would agree with Lee that there is a performance error. However, supposing the /lɆº/ version is the one used by the speaker, there would be nothing wrong at all, and it is definitely acceptable. As I will show further in the study, there are examples of native SCE speakers reproducing this leh in other instances. Lee (2007: 6) also continues and suggests the use of the particle meh instead in place of leh as being more appropriate. This is highly incorrect, as this would give the utterance an entirely different meaning. Since this study does not concern the study of meh, I will not dwell on this issue. Moreover, this confusion highlights one of the problems of not distinguishing clearly the two different particles of leh /lɆº/ and /le/. The fact that one of the variants of leh would be out of place in a utterance that would be appropriate with the other, further supports the argument that these two should be treated as two different, separate particles. 3.2 Wee (2004) Wee (2004) in his paper included a different function of leh. He suggests that leh marks an assertion or request as being tentative, and therefore working as a pragmatic softener (2004: 122). In his analysis, Wee (2004) used an excerpt from the GSSEC to display such a softening function: (7) A: Actually†¦ come to think about it actually, er, this movie speaks very badly about men leh. According to Wee (2004), leh softens the opinion that A makes, and signifies that it is a weak opinion, therefore explaining the speakers hesitance and sheepishness in making the statement. However, it is not clear what version of leh the speaker used. In fact, both /lɆº/ and /le/ can be used in such in instance without affecting Wees interpretation. Despite this, I argue that /lɆº/ and /le/ exhibit different states of minds and attitudes of the speaker, and as such cannot be used interchangeably. Both versions exhibit a softening function, however to different degrees. When /lɆº/ is used, it suggests more assertion rather than softening, and the opinion is more forceful than when /le/ is used. For this reason, it is assumed that the /le/ version is the one Wee (2004) is referring to. Wee (2004:122) also used the following: (8) (A and B are talking about a movie) A: But so few people lah, maybe because it has been running for quite some time lah. B: Actually two weeks only leh. Wee again uses this as an example of leh acting as a softener. Once again, it is not clear which leh is used. In this example, if /lɆº/ is used, the assertion of it being two weeks only is much more forceful than that of /le/. It further goes to show how these two particles should be defined properly. I will address the issue of leh being used as a softener later in this paper. 3.3 Lee (2007) Lee (2007) identifies three tonal variants of leh in his paper, and suggests that each particle has its own pragmatic function realised in specific speech contexts. He claims they can be realised in tone 1, tone3 and tone 4 of Mandarin Chinese respectively. In addition to identifying the more commonly known /le/ as leh1, Lee (2007) also correctly identifies /lɆº/ in his paper. He found two tonal variants of it leh3 and leh4. However he too, makes no mention of the differentiation in pronunciation. For the sake of discussion, we will assume that he has made the correct distinction between /lɆº/ and /le/. In marking the variants of /lɆº/, Lee (2007) categorises leh3 as being a marker of intent and leh4 as a marker of assertion. One of the functions Lee (2007) has accorded the use of leh3 is that of reporting a new state of affairs which is assumed to be beyond the addressees knowledge. However, as I will show later in the presentation of data, that this is not necessarily true. Even with speakers knowing that each other has knowledge of a particular piece of information, the particle can be used. Lee (2007) also does not fully expand the section on the usage of the leh4 variant that he calls marker of assertion. He suggests only a subtle distinction between the third of fourth tones of the particle (2007: 15). This is not true, and as data will show, leh4 can capture and reflect different meanings and attitudes of the speaker, including the suggestion of exaggerated emphasis or sarcasm. This as a result would mean more than just a subtle distinction between the two particles. 4. The different forms of leh The data used and presented in this paper have been taken from conversational interactions between Singaporeans using SCE. Because of the naturally occurring circumstances of which these data have been obtained, they are authentic instances of the use of SCE (and thus the use of the leh particles). These data would be analysed and they form the basis of presenting the different forms of leh in this paper. In Lees (2007) study, he separated leh into three different tonal variants, where within one tonal variant the particle could take on different meanings. I would take a similar approach, however I make a marked distinction between the /le/ and /lɆº/ forms of leh. The analysis would be separated into two major parts, with the first part being the more commonly known /le/ version of leh, and the second detailing the /lɆº/ of leh which I will represent with lea. 4.1 /le/ leh The /le/ leh consists of a number of variants, and I will attempt to separate them into their particular functions. 4.1.1 Leh as a Softener realised as tone 1 in Mandarin Chinese As has been categorised by Lee (2007: 7), this leh occurs in the second part of an adjacency pair, whereby the speaker is unable or unwilling to provide a preferred response with respect to a proposition introduced by the addressee in the first part of discourse. Lee calls this the dispreferred second (2007: 7). According to Yule (1996: 79), the preferred is the structurally expected next act and the dispreferred is the structurally unexpected next act. Therefore, disagreements and refusals are next acts which are unexpected. Yule (1996) has found that in English, hesitation and prefaces are used to make a response (as a dispreferred second) less challenging to the first, thereby softening an unexpected next act. In SCE, leh performs a similar function. Thus as mentioned, this leh is used by a speaker in response to something said prior that the speaker does not agree with. This does not necessarily have to be an opinion of which one can blatantly state an agreement or disagreement with, but also requests or false statements. The leh is tagged to the dispreferred second of an utterance, and thus performs a function of softening the blow of an unexpected next act. (9) A: Eh, later after this we go get something to eat. B: Later? I got something on leh. In (9), A is suggesting to B that they go for a meal after their current activity. However, B is unable to make it. In this instance, B is offering a refusal to As invitation. He does not refuse the invitation outright. Rather, he answers the question indirectly by stating that he has something on, which naturally would be taken to mean that he wouldnt be free for As meal invitation. This indirect refusal could be taken to be a way of making the refusal less challenging. Even so, leh is still used to further soften the refusal. Leh is able to perform this softening function because the usage of leh suggests an attitude of a willingness to compromise, or to negotiate a position whether it is an intention the speaker is trying to convey or not. For instance in (9), because the use of leh softens the unexpected next act of refusal, we see the following exchange: (10) A: Eh, later after this we go get something to eat. B: Later? I got something on leh. A: Huh? What thing? Eat lah! B: Cannot lah. The use of leh by B suggests a position of the possibility of negotiation rather than closing the door on any possibility of accepting the invitation with an outright rejection, which explains why A continued by attempting to change Bs mind and getting him to accept the invitation. B clearly did not have the intention to negotiate because he promptly put an end to As attempts to persuade by refusing the invitation outright in his second utterance. Thus, leh performs a softening function in suggesting a position of compromise and willingness to negotiate, therefore making a refusal or rejection less challenging. (11) (A and B are discussing the price of a new phone. A thinks the price is expensive, while B thinks it is a reasonable price) A: Cheap? Then you buy me one lor. B: Please leh, cheap also need money. Buy for you I might as well buy more for myself.

The Three Elements of the Female Athlete Triad Essay -- Athletics Wome

The Three Elements of the Female Athlete Triad For an increasing number of women in the United States, a concern or preoccupation with body weight and size is a constant pressure. Female athletes, like most women in our society, are also often pressured to conform to certain ideal body sizes and shapes, as dictated by the entertainment and fashion industries. Female athletes, however, face a twofold pressure. They face the burden that our culture places on all women to be thin, but they also face the burden from coaches, parents, and other athletes to succeed in sports and look good doing so by maintaining an unrealistically low weight. When weight gain means removal from a team or elimination from competition, many female athletes turn to dangerous food restriction and excessive exercise. This pressure to achieve or maintain unrealistically low body weight underlies the development of a syndrome recently named the Female Athlete Triad. First identified by the American College of Sports Medicine in 1992, the Female Athlete Triad consists of three medical disorders commonly found in female athletes: disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. Alone each disorder is dangerous; in combination the triad disorders are potentially fatal. Eating Disorders in Female Athletes Before evaluating the available studies on the prevalence of disordered eating among female athletes, it is necessary to recognize the many limitations and problems that arise with such studies. First of all, there are a limited number of studies on this segment of females and their eating patterns. Also, many of these studies rely on self-reporting surveys, which inherently may be flawed due to the fact that many athletes may deny disordered eating b... ...74-1475. Smith, A. (1996). The female athlete triad. Physician and Sportsmedicine, 24, 67. Weight gain does not increase bone density in women with eating disorders. (2000) International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 29-35. Wiita, B.G., Stombaugh, I.A. (1996). Nutritional knowledge, eating practices, and health of adolescent female runners: a 3-year longitudinal study. International Journal of Sports Nutrition, 6, 414-425. Williams, N.I., Young, J.C., McArthur, J.W., Bullen, B., Skrinar, G.S., Turnbull, B. (1995). Strenuous exercise with caloric restriction: effect on luteinizing hormone secretion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1390-1398. Yeager, K., Agostini, R., Nattiiv, A., and Drinkwater, B. (1993). The female athlete triad: Disordered eating, amenorrhea, osteoporosis. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 775-777.

Death Of A Salesman :: essays research papers

Critical Essay – Drama   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea that any person can rise from humble beginnings to greatness is the basis of the American Dream. Arthur Miller paints a harsh picture of this ideal in the drama Death of a Salesman. The main character, Willy Loman, is a complex and tragic figure. He is a man striving to hold onto what dignity he has left in a world that no longer values the beliefs he grew up with. While society can be blamed for much of Willy’s misfortune, he must also be blamed for his bad judgement, disloyalty and his foolish pride.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Willy Loman’s own delusions are a result of his failure to succeed in life. He still believes he is popular, respected and good-looking. But at age sixty-three, he is none of those. When presented with a bill he knows he cannot pay, Willy convinces himself that a sales trip to Hartford will solve his problems. He vows to his wife, “I’ll knock ‘em dead next week. I’ll go to Hartford, I’m very well liked in Hartford'; (1809). However, in those moments that he begins to realize the truth, his wife Linda while understanding his situation, supports his delusion. She says to him “…you’re the handsomest man in the world'; (1809). But the truth is being popular and good looking is not the key to success. Success is achieved through hard work and perseverance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American Dream has long turned sour for Willy. At the beginning of his life, he remembers travelling in a wagon going westward. His parents conquered the new frontier and succeeded. His brother Ben, “Walked into a jungle, and comes out, the age of twenty-one, and he’s rich'; (1811). For a while, the American Dream was alive in Willy too. He helped stake out new territories by selling his goods, his son Biff was going to a university with a scholarship and he had a home with no apartments closing in on him. But now, Willy is forced to work on commission at an old age and ultimately fired by his godson. His favored son Biff is also a hopeless dreamer, unable to hold on to a job. Willy’s “fatherly advice'; advocated “…it’s not what you do. It’s who you know and the smile on your face'; (1833). Willy’s delusions of fame and fortune infected his own life and spread to the sons he had placed such high hopes on.

Leo Tolstoys The Death of Ivan Ilyich Essay -- The Death of Ivan Ilyi

Death of Ivan Ilych 1. Characterize the following individuals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Peter Ivanovich   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gerasim   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Proskovya Fedorovna   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vasya Indicate, as well, the ways, in which these individuals help or hinder Ivan Ilych’s spiritual growth. 2. How do (a) the stories associated with the Baal Shem Tov and (b) the biblical tale of Elisha in Damascus illustrate the spiritual journey undertaken by Ivan Ilych? 1. Peter Ivanovich (known from now on as PI) was Ivan’s dearest friend. PI and Ivan have known each other all their lives yet at Ivan’s funeral PI shows no deep remorse. All that PI really thinks about is the vacancy that Ivan has left at work. He like other people, thinks that relationships are just about achieving ones own agenda. And such loving and compassionate relationships do not exist. Another situation that PI has is that after his selfish like behavior he is characterized by a desire to avoid the unpleasant. This is shown when PI skirts the topic of Ivan’s death and â€Å"drags his feet† when it comes time to attend the funeral. He has a problem with confronting the aspect of his own mortality. PI never quite makes the transition to the true understanding of the nature of life that Ivan had made and Gerasim as well. Even though upon leaving Ivan’s funeral PI evokes the observation that it is God’s will that everybody dies someday. His receptivity and consciousness make him stand out amongst society. If one looks at PI’s last name of Ivan... Leo Tolstoy's The Death of Ivan Ilyich Essay -- The Death of Ivan Ilyi Death of Ivan Ilych 1. Characterize the following individuals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Peter Ivanovich   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gerasim   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Proskovya Fedorovna   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vasya Indicate, as well, the ways, in which these individuals help or hinder Ivan Ilych’s spiritual growth. 2. How do (a) the stories associated with the Baal Shem Tov and (b) the biblical tale of Elisha in Damascus illustrate the spiritual journey undertaken by Ivan Ilych? 1. Peter Ivanovich (known from now on as PI) was Ivan’s dearest friend. PI and Ivan have known each other all their lives yet at Ivan’s funeral PI shows no deep remorse. All that PI really thinks about is the vacancy that Ivan has left at work. He like other people, thinks that relationships are just about achieving ones own agenda. And such loving and compassionate relationships do not exist. Another situation that PI has is that after his selfish like behavior he is characterized by a desire to avoid the unpleasant. This is shown when PI skirts the topic of Ivan’s death and â€Å"drags his feet† when it comes time to attend the funeral. He has a problem with confronting the aspect of his own mortality. PI never quite makes the transition to the true understanding of the nature of life that Ivan had made and Gerasim as well. Even though upon leaving Ivan’s funeral PI evokes the observation that it is God’s will that everybody dies someday. His receptivity and consciousness make him stand out amongst society. If one looks at PI’s last name of Ivan...

Causes and Effects of the War of 1812

Causes and Effects of The War of 1812 The nineteenth century brought major change to The United States turning it from a developing country into a world power. The addition of Alaska, Oregon, Texas, and Florida, the Mexican Cession and The Louisiana Purchase made The United States a world power. The War of 1812 catalyzed this great expansion. There were four main concerns that led to The War of 1812. Maritime and trade issues, the Embargo Act, territorial expansion, and War Hawks. Although they were major concerns, one alone did not start up the war. â€Å"On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain.In what is often called America's second revolution, the countries were locked in a series of battles for more than two years, which led to few gains on either side. It was one of the most unpopular wars in American history; when its treaty was signed on December 24, 1814, diplomats agreed that the countries should return to the situations they were in before t he start of hostilities. † The troubles with maritime and trade issues on the high seas could have been the biggest concern. As America increased in it’s foreign affairs it began to effect Great Britain and France and their on going quarrel.So President Jefferson declared The United States a neutral power. However this tactic did not work because Britain felt anyone trading with France was an enemy. So from 1803 until 1812 Britain impressed approximately 10,000 Americans, forcing them to work on British ships. And in 1805 Britain decided in The Essex Case that any American commercial ship traveling between enemy or neutral ports will be seized. When word of this British interference and impressments of sailors came back to America citizens were outraged and anti-British feelings began to rise.The Embargo Act was signed on December 22,1807 by Congress under President Jefferson. As a result of tension between Great Britain and France and the risk of losing American ships to either side this act was passed to ban all foreign trade. There was talk of amending the Non-Importation Act and The Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin even suggested going into a full out war, but Jefferson failed to see the benefit of a restrictive economic policy like the Non-Importation Act and preferred a peaceful end.Although it was a noble idea to end the tension with a peaceful means, the act failed to make Great Britain and France respect American rights. The Embargo Act ended up affecting everyone at home more than it did Great Britain or France. The economy of The United States started spiraling downward since the act passed, and the smuggling trade began to increase. â€Å"Although it was successful in averting war, news of evasions and other such negative consequences of the Embargo forced Thomas Jefferson and Congress to consider repealing the measure.The American economy was suffering and the American public opinion was not in support of its continuation. U ltimately, the embargo failed to have a significant effect on the British. Goods still reached Great Britain through illegal shipments; British trade was not suffering as much as the framers of the embargo had intended†. The act only had a major effect at home; making Americans furious Britain would not open up free trade. Britain began to see the increasing tension between themselves and the United States, so British officers in Canada began making friends with Indians residing in the Northwest region of The United States.It was easy for Britain to befriend the Native Americans because they felt threatened by Americans and their desire to push westward, and take their land. One of the greatest Indian chiefs in North American history, a Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, prepared to protect their land. He began by traveling the Mississippi valley as far south as Tennessee looking for assistance to create an Indian confederacy strong enough to fight the Americans. He enlisted his brother , Prophet, to begin to unite the tribes of the west to fight against Americans.A disagreement broke out over an American purchase of three million acres of land in Indian Territory. In a battle outside of Prophet’s town of Tippecanoe River, Prophet foolishly decided to attack American militiamen while they were sleeping. The town was torched in the battle that followed, and years of planning and organization was wasted. After this incident in June 1812, Tecumseh and a small company of Native Americans joined the British at Amherstburg. During the war, American’s called for an invasion of Canada mainly because the support the British gave to American Indians.In the Battle of Thames, Tecumseh died and an American victory is gained. The War Hawks were a number of young representatives voted into the twelfth congress. They were typically people from southern and western states like Henry Clay, Speaker of the House at the time, John Calhoun of Kentucky and Langdon Cheves of South Carolina who spoke in Congress advocating going to war with Great Britain. They believed it was our right to expansion, and declared that a thousand Kentucky riflemen could take on Canada alone. They expected the war to be short, considering the British were in Europe fighting Napoleon.Although opposed by the Federalist of New York, New Jersey, and most of New England, on June 18, 1812 James Madison declared war on Great Britain. â€Å"However the War Hawks had displayed much more energy in talking about war than in planning and preparing for war. At the beginning of hostilities there were about 7,000 men in the regular forces and these were commanded by senior officers who were old, incompetent or lacking in experience. Congress had voted for war, but seemed reluctant to spend the necessary funds upon equipment and supplies.A bill introduced into Congress with the purpose of increasing the size of the American Navy was turned down by the members. Volunteer soldiers were bad ly fed and disgracefully clothed. In winter, the unfortunate sentries who patrolled the Canadian-American border shivered and shook on duty because they lacked overcoats. † Some historians say the war hawks are the ones to blame for the war, because they wanted to wage a war knowing the United States military was inadequate at the time. The war ended December 24,1814 with The Treaty of Ghent. Not a single senator voted against peace.Although the war did not have much effect at the time, besides gaining land conquered during battle, the effect of the War of 1812 would become grate. After the war, America gained international respect for resisting Great Britain’s control for the second time in less than forty years. Also, marking the last armed conflict between the two countries. Not only did the war prove the United States military, but also it’s army. It gave The United States battle tested leaders, and the opportunity to train servicemen; which proves to be need ed to expand by land acquisitions from the Spanish-American and Mexican-American Wars.The British blockade leading up to the War of 1812 strengthened the United States economy by requiring workers to manufacture most goods normally imported, diminishing foreign dependence. After the federalist did not support the war and were considered traitors for attempting to secede at the Hartford Convention, the party was destroyed. The end to this party marked an era of Good Feeling for the United States, since they did not have to deal with inter-party disputes. â€Å"Manifest Destiny†, America’s destiny to span from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would not be possible without the courage and wisdom The War of 1812 gave America.The military would not have be what it is today without taking off the way it did after the war, or the nationalism Americans felt and have been able to span the difference between the oceans. Many nations saw how The United States struggled but kept holdi ng on throughout the war to come to a peaceful agreement. By showing this, America became a force to be reckoned with and would prove to be a world power. Bibliography â€Å"American History Timeline- War of 1812. † Accessed November 20, 2011. http://americanhistory. about. om/od/warof1812/a/war-of-1812-timeline. htm Dooley, Patricia L. â€Å"The Declaration of the War of 1812. † The Early Republic: Primary Documents on Events from 1799 to 1820. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2004. ABC-CLIO eBook Collection. Web. 27 Nov 2011 â€Å"Embargo of 1807,† Accessed November 20, 2011, http://www. monticello. org/site/research-and-collections/embargo-1807. Volo, Dorothy Denneen, James M. Volo. â€Å"WAR HAWKS. † Encyclopedia of the Antebellum South. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2000. ABC-CLIO eBook Collection. Web. 28 Nov 2011. â€Å"War of 1812, 1807. Accessed November 20, 2011. http://www. u-s-history. com/pages/h2621. html â€Å"War of 1812. † Accessed N ovember 20, 2011, http://www. warof1812. ca/intro. html â€Å"War of 1812: Battle of the Thames. † Accessed November 20, 2011, http://www. historynet. com/war-of-1812-battle-of-the-thames. htm ——————————————– [ 1 ]. â€Å"Embargo of 1807,† accessed November 20,2011, http://www. monticello. org/site/research-and-collections/embargo-1807. [ 2 ]. â€Å"War of 1812. † Accessed November 20, 2011, http://www. warof1812. ca/intro. html

Decision Making in DHL

Introduction: DHL commits its expertise in international express, air and ocean freight, road and rail transportation, contract logistics and international mail services to its customers. A global network composed of more than 220 countries and territories and about 275,000 employees worldwide offers customers superior service quality and local knowledge to satisfy their supply chain requirements. DHL accepts its social responsibility by supporting climate protection, disaster management and education. DHL is part of  Deutsche Post  DHL.The Group generated revenue of more than 53 billion euros in 2011. I will be discussing DHL from many aspects such as decision making and its effect on the organizational performance from the perspective of Cyert & March and compare it to Bursson theory. Also I will cover Zimmermen theory about rules and apply it to DHL case study. Finally I will examine the macro environment of DHL organization. Body: DHL was the global market leader in internati onal express shipping, overland transport, and air freight, as well as ocean freight and contract logistics.As of April 2011, its network covered more than 220 countries and territories worldwide in 120,000 destinations. It had many awards to its credit (Refer to Exhibit I for the details of awards won by DHL). According to Ken Allen, CEO, Express Division, DHL, â€Å"The express sector is one of the major drivers of global trade and we are excellently positioned to capitalize on this through our services which meet our customers’ domestic and international transport requirements, anywhere around the world. † Formal organization has its own specific function or functions.A university for example has the main function of promoting education. But it also promotes artistic, literary, athletic and other interests of the members. The principal function of the church is religion but it also promotes charitable, ethical, athelitic, recreational, educational and other activiti es. Thus the formal organization may have its latent as well as manifest functions. The formal organization has its own norms or rules of social behavior. Certain conducts are appropriate in certain organization. Formal organization lays down procedure to be followed by the members.Members of an organization have different statuses. Statuses imply division of labor. The division of labor is characterized of all organizations and in a sense; organization is synonymous with the division of labor. Organized actions in a formal organization are possible because of division of labor. Bureaucracy refers to the administrative aspect of the formal organization. It refers to the arrangement of the organization designed to carry out its day to day business. It is represented by a hierarchy of officials who are assigned different responsibilities and provided with different statuses and roles.The formal organization is based on rationality. The rationality of formal organizations has two sourc es- the predominance of rules that have been devised to help achieve definite results and the systematic reliance on knowledge in the operation of the organization. The formal organizations are relatively permanent. Some organizations last for longer time while others perish within a short period of time. According to Zimmerman he illustrates the inadequacy of the rational decision making approach.He shows that members of an organization are far from adhering to the rules and procedures that should inform their decision making; they instead use & understand these rules in everyday work in creative & adaptive ways. He wants to understand how organizational members actually make sense of & understand what these rules mean in practice. Studies assumes and accept the existence of clear rational , objective rules of decision making but are contrasted with actual practice. Zimmerman objects this view; he offers how these rules become alive: how formal plans are used by members to deal wit h every day work activities.He analyses how employees’ use of formal rules is determined by their attempts to achieve their view of their priorities. Activities of bureaucratic actors in a public assistance organization will be examined. To Zimmerman, following rigid or complex procedures impedes effective action. The analysis is concerned with the judgmental work of receptionists in assigning applicants to intake case-workers. This study investigates the variety of practices, operational meaning and situational relevance of policies and procedures for everyday organizational activities.Rules, policies, formal planning Researchers argue that rules and policies are to some degree abstract and general, and should not be treated as idealizations. Rules cannot completely reflect the changing organizational situations. Informal rules and policies usually develop, where personnel modify and redefine the rules in light of operating conditions. The formal plan of the organization is used and interpreted by personnel in a way that best suits their everyday work activities. Usually, procedures and rules are designed to ensure efficient achievement of formally defined goals.However, it is not always practical to strictly follow the rules, because of the ever-changing output of the many interactions of individuals. People use and understand the rules in everyday work in creative and adaptive ways. The chapter wanted to understand how organizational members actually make sense of and understand what the rules mean in practice. Receptionists made sense of the rules in subtle ways, and made decisions about when and how to use them in light of their experience and knowledge of applicants and situations.The problem is then how the formal plan of an organization could be used by its members to deal with everyday work activities and of what are the features that members use to recognize and interpret. Instruct others, about the operational intent & behavioral implications of such a plan. The sense of routine provides employees with: * A way to recognize the exceptional character of a given event. * The good grounds for suspending or otherwise modifying the rule as normally applied Suspension or bending a rule is considered a reasonable solution to minor dilemma.The use of formally prescribed procedure, viewed from the notion of their competent use becomes. * Not a matter of compliance or deviance (behavior) * But a judgmental work providing for the reasonableness of viewing particular action as essentially satisfying the provision of the rule Rules are not hard and fast social facts but are the result of continual interpretation and negotiation which produces an – ever shifting framework to be taken. Rules may be negotiated and changed and new rules also stand over and above organizational actors informing and shaping the emotional life of an organization.Rules are resources for action, but because contexts vary, they do not determine perform ance of individuals or their organization. Industry observers felt that like any other successful company, DHL’s success could be attributed to some of the basic strategies it had adopted: knowing the customers and solving their problems, expanding the business, and creating a win-win situation for all stakeholders. According to company officials, the opening of the new European hub at Leipzig/Halle in 2008 was an example of adhering to that old formula.While deciding on the location of this hub, not only did the DHL authorities focus on optimally locating its facilities, but they also planned for the company’s long-term future. DHL was also faced with having to train large numbers of new personnel. In three years’ time, 2,000 employees were qualified for their respective tasks at the hub. DHL estimated 2,000 employees were working at the hub in September 2008. Their number is expected to rise to approximately 3,500 by 2012. Nearly 90% of the newly employed work ers come from the region around the airport.Two-thirds of them were previously unemployed. Some 7,000 more jobs will likely be created in the surrounding area, bringing the total number of direct and indirect new jobs around the Leipzig/Halle hub to approximately 10,000. In addition, DHL is training young people in the various logistics and IT professions at the airfreight hub. With all the mentioned above DHL is a company who follows and respect the rules and that to succeeds and maintain success. With all the complexity in DHL as a formal organization, decision making can't be that easy as well.The political perspective is clearly identified by Cyert, March ; Miller , where they identified theories of decision making that are concerned with politics (Coalition aspect) ; processes (Problemistic search) where an activity is only initiated by an immediate problem rather than an orderly systematic process of search and analysis. ( as for Pettigrew). Here, Pettigrew view organizations and decision making as a political arena in which:; Political behavior follows the unequal distribution of resources ; the creation of specialized loyalties and perspectives thru organizational differentiation.Organizational units with different or conflicting interest, loyalties and mindsets struggle for advantage with obvious implications for the nature and outcome of decision making. Political activity is central to organizational structures and processes: divisions of interest result from the hierarchical nature of power. Power relations ; politics originate in the structure ; processes of the organization. Structures create specialism's which develop loyalties which in turn breeds politics. The heart of conflict, politics & co-operation is Power.Cyert and March propose two major organizing devices: a set of variable concepts and a set of relational concepts. They claim that Theory performs two major functions: * it is an exhaustive set of general concepts. * it has a set of rel ational concepts The exhaustive set of general concepts, the process of decision making can be analyzing in term of variables that effect organization goals, expectations and the variables that effect organizational choice. Organization goals: A theory of organizational goals considers how goals arise in an organization, how goals change over time, and how the organization attends to these goals.There are two sets of variables affecting the goals of an organization. As the international express business had been growing steadily over the previous few years and assuming that it would continue to expand in the future as well, the Leipzig/Halle site had developed the potential to become a crucial junction for the express and logistics specialists. At the same time, DHL considered an additional starting and landing capacity in Central Europe to be necessary, as the company’s existing European hub in Brussels had reached its threshold limit.The organization visions of labor becaus e individuals have limited capacities, and limited time, to devote to any particular aspect of the organizational system, such limitations constrain the bargaining process. As an adaptive response, coalition members are motivated to develop mutual control systems, such as the budget and the allocation of tasks by the division of labor and specialization. Set variables influence the aspiration-level on any particular goal dimension. There are three variables; the organization past goal, the organizations past performance, the past performance of other ‘comparable’ organization.Organization expectations: Expectations are seen as the result of drawing inferences from available information. Expectations are by no means independent of hopes, wishes, and the internal bargaining needs of subunits in the organization. Therefore a good theory for the organizational expectations should consider variables that affect either the process of drawing inferences or the process by which information is made available to the organization. Organization choice: A theory of organizational choice needs to characterize the process by which the alternatives available to the organization are ordered and selected.Organizational decisions depend on information estimates and expectations that ordinarily differ appreciably from reality. Choice takes place in response or influence. DHL considered an additional starting and landing capacity in Central Europe to be necessary, as the company’s existing European hub in Brussels had reached its threshold limit. Theory as set relational concepts, there are four fundamental concept to understanding of the decision-making process in a modern, large-scale business organization.The quasi resolution of conflict; uncertainty avoidance; problematic search and organizational learning. After we went through decision making, I'll analyze DHL with PEST analysis to understand its macro environment. PEST analysis  stands for â€Å"Polit ical,  Economic,  Social, and  Technological analysis† and describes a framework of macro-environmental factors used in the  environmental scanning component of  strategic management. Political  factors are how and to what degree a  government  intervenes in the economy.Specifically, political factors include areas such as  tax policy,  labor law,  environmental law,  trade restrictions,  tariffs, and political stability. Political factors may also include goods and services which the government wants to provide or be provided (merit goods) and those that the government does not want to be provided (demerit goods  or merit bads). Furthermore, governments have great influence on the  health,  education, and infrastructure  of a nation. In Leipzig/Halle, courier and express services are of vital importance to the efficiency and growth of the Leipzig/Halle economy.With Leipzig/Halle geographical position which is away from the centre of continent al Europe, fast and effective delivery services are essential for Leipzig/Halle businesses involved in international trade. Economic  factors include  economic growth,  interest rates,  exchange rates  and the  inflation rate. These factors have major impacts on how businesses operate and make decisions. For example, interest rates affect a firm's  cost of capital  and therefore to what extent a business grows and expands. Exchange rates affect the costs of exporting goods and the supply and price of imported goods in an economy.Advances in technology and the increasing use of e-commerce, combined with the courier and express sector's commitment to investing in IT, and have cushioned the industry from the worst effects of the recent global slowdown. Social  factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness, population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safety. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a company' s products and how that company operates. For example, an aging population may imply a smaller and less-willing workforce (thus increasing the cost of labor).Furthermore, companies may change various management strategies to adapt to these social trends. In DHL a raft of government measures to tackle environmental pollution and congestion have increased costs for the, largely road-based, express logistics sector. Technological  factors include technological aspects such as  R&D  activity,  automation, technology incentives and the rate of  technological change. They can determine barriers to entry, minimum efficient production level and influence  outsourcing  decisions. Furthermore, technological shifts can affect costs, quality, and lead to  innovation.DHL used satellite-based navigation systems. The company planned to improve the system by including and analyzing more information concerning terms of traffic, traffic lights, and construction sites. Conclusion We co nclude that DHL can't operate without rules, it should consider and fear competition as it should take its decisions rationally without complexity. That by applying the above theories and understand them very well as an organization. I will be summering chapter 6 The Irrationality of Action and Action Rationality of: Decisions, Ideologies and Organizations.A decision is a choice between at least 2 alternatives. Decision making was explained by economists, political researchers as well as, psychologists and sociologists. Some individuals decide and others carry out the decisions. Researchers elaborated in the direction of rationality while other evidence shows that the process does not comply with rationality specially in strategic major issues. People are not clever enough to behave rationally. Therefore decision makers should be carefully selected. Irrationality is inherited in human beings which cannot be changed by training.Decision makers don’t have enough information on the many variables involved. Therefore, information systems may help to improve the process beside caring about objectives and alternative comparison. An action perspective to explain the process is more acceptable. Since leaders don’t only take decisions but also act and induce others to act on them. Since managers act while making decisions rationality of decisions take in consideration practical internal and external norms. Irrationality as a base of organizational actions 1. Searching for alternatives. 2. Estimating Consequences 3. Evaluating Alternatives . Choosing 5. Making Rational Use of Irrationality Rational decisions create irrational procedures from an action point of view. They should be avoided in order for an action to be taken. References: * Salaman, G. (2002) Decision Making for Business, London, The Open University/The Alden Press, Oxford. * Salaman, G. (2001) Business Behaviour in a Changing World: Module One Study Guide, London, The Open University. * http ://www. dhl. com. kw/en/about_us. html * http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/PEST_analysis * http://www. sociologyguide. com/organization-and-individual/formal-organizations. php